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Home / What Refers to a Position on the Same Side of the Body?

What Refers to a Position on the Same Side of the Body?

Standard terms for unambiguous description of relative placement of torso parts

Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously depict the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position provides a definition of what is at the front end ("inductive"), behind ("posterior") and so on. As part of defining and describing terms, the body is described through the use of anatomical planes and anatomical axes.

The pregnant of terms that are used can alter depending on whether an organism is bipedal or quadrupedal. Additionally, for some animals such as invertebrates, some terms may not have any meaning at all; for example, an animal that is radially symmetrical will have no anterior surface, merely can notwithstanding have a description that a role is close to the heart ("proximal") or further from the middle ("distal").

International organisations take determined vocabularies that are frequently used as standard vocabularies for subdisciplines of anatomy, for example, Terminologia Anatomica for humans, and Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria for animals. These allow parties that use anatomical terms, such as anatomists, veterinarians, and medical doctors to have a standard ready of terms to communicate clearly the position of a structure.

Introduction [edit]

Because of differences in the fashion humans and other animals are structured, different terms are used according to the neuraxis and whether an beast is a vertebrate or invertebrate.

Standard anatomical and zoological terms of location have been developed, usually based on Latin and Greek words, to enable all biological and medical scientists, veterinarians, doctors and anatomists to precisely delineate and communicate information about animate being bodies and their organs, even though the meaning of some of the terms often is context-sensitive.[i] [two] Much of this information has been standardised in internationally agreed vocabularies for humans (Terminologia Anatomica)[two] and animals (Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria).[1]

For humans, one type of vertebrate, and other animals that stand on ii feet (bipeds), terms that are used are different from those that stand on four (quadrupeds).[i] I reason is that humans have a different neuraxis and some other is that different animals that rest on four limbs, humans are considered when describing anatomy as existence in the standard anatomical position, which is standing up with arms outstretched.[2] Thus, what is on "pinnacle" of a man is the caput, whereas the "peak" of a dog may exist its dorsum, and the "top" of a flounder could refer to either its left or its right side. Unique terms are used to describe animals without a backbone (invertebrates), considering of their broad diverseness of shapes and symmetry.[three]

Standard anatomical position [edit]

Because animals can modify orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages similar limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, terms to describe position need to refer to an animal when it is in its standard anatomical position.[1] This ways descriptions as if the organism is in its standard anatomical position, fifty-fifty when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.[1] In humans, this refers to the body in a continuing position with arms at the side and palms facing forrard, with thumbs out and to the sides.[2] [one]

Combined terms [edit]

Many anatomical terms can exist combined, either to bespeak a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a motility relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body centrality (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle).

In radiology, an X-ray image may be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the axle of Ten-rays passes from their source to patient's anterior body wall through the body to exit through posterior body wall.[4] Combined terms were once more often than not, hyphenated, but the modern trend is to omit the hyphen.[5]

Planes [edit]

Anatomical planes in a human

Anatomical terms describe structures with relation to four master anatomical planes:[two]

  1. The median airplane, which divides the body into left and right.[two] [six] This passes through the head, spinal cord, belly button, and, in many animals, the tail.[6]
  2. The sagittal planes, which are parallel to the median plane.[1]
  3. The frontal plane, also called the coronal plane, which divides the trunk into forepart and back.[ii]
  4. The horizontal airplane, too known every bit the transverse aeroplane, which is perpendicular to the other two planes.[2] In a human, this aeroplane is parallel to the ground; in a quadruped, this divides the animal into inductive and posterior sections.[3]

Axes [edit]

Organisms where the ends of the long axis are singled-out. (Paramecium caudatum, in a higher place, and Stentor roeselii, below.)

The axes of the body are lines drawn near which an organism is roughly symmetrical.[seven] To do this, distinct ends of an organism are chosen, and the axis is named according to those directions. An organism that is symmetrical on both sides has three master axes that intersect at correct angles.[3] An organism that is round or not symmetrical may take different axes.[3] Example axes are:

  • The anteroposterior axis[eight]
  • The cephalocaudal axis[nine]
  • The dorsoventral axis[x]

Examples of axes in specific animals are shown below.

  • Anatomical axes and directions in a fish

  • Spheroid or near-spheroid organs such as testes may be measured by "long" and "short" centrality.[11]

Modifiers [edit]

Terms can exist modified with prefixes and suffixes. In this image showing the jellyfish species Chrysaora, the prefix 'ab-', is used to indicate something that is 'away from' the mouth, for example the aboral. Other terms are combined to bespeak axes, such every bit proximodistal centrality.

Several terms are usually seen and used equally prefixes:

  • Sub- (from Latin sub 'preposition beneath, close to, nearly etc') is used to indicate something that is beneath, or something that is subordinate to or lesser than.[12] For example, subcutaneous ways beneath the skin, and "subglobular" may mean smaller than a globule
  • Hypo- (from Ancient Greek ὑπό 'nether') is used to bespeak something that is below.[xiii] For instance, the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles beneath the tongue.
  • Infra- (from Latin infra 'under') is used to point something that is inside or below.[14] For case, the infraorbital nervus runs within the orbit.
  • Inter- (from Latin inter 'betwixt') is used to indicate something that is between.[15] For example, the intercostal muscles run between the ribs.
  • Super- or Supra- (from Latin super, supra 'above, on top of') is used to indicate something that is above something else.[sixteen] For example, the supraorbital ridges are higher up the eyes.

Other terms are used as suffixes, added to the finish of words:

  • -advertisement (from Latin ad 'towards') and ab- (from Latin ab) are used to point that something is towards (-advertisement) or abroad from (-ab) something else.[17] [xviii] For example, "distad" means "in the distal direction", and "distad of the femur" means "beyond the femur in the distal direction". Further examples may include cephalad (towards the cephalic end), craniad, and proximad.[xix]

Main terms [edit]

Superior and inferior [edit]

Superior (from Latin super 'higher up') describes what is to a higher place something[twenty] and inferior (from Latin inferus 'beneath') describes what is below it.[21] For example, in the anatomical position, the most superior part of the human body is the head and the most inferior is the feet. As a second case, in humans, the neck is superior to the chest just inferior to the head.

Anterior and posterior [edit]

Anterior (from Latin ante 'before') describes what is in front end,[22] and posterior (from Latin post 'after') describes what is to the dorsum of something.[23] For example, for a dog the nose is inductive to the optics and the tail is considered the most posterior role; for many fish the gill openings are posterior to the eyes just anterior to the tail.

Medial and lateral [edit]

These terms describe how close something is to the midline, or the medial plane.[2] Lateral (from Latin lateralis 'to the side') describes something to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and "right lateral". Medial (from Latin medius 'middle') describes structures close to the midline,[two] or closer to the midline than another construction. For example, in a human, the arms are lateral to the body. The genitals are medial to the legs.

The terms "left" and "correct" are sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives (Latin: dexter, lit.'right'; Latin: sinister, lit.'left'). Withal, as left and right sides are mirror images, using these words is somewhat confusing, equally structures are duplicated on both sides. For case, information technology is very confusing to say the dorsal fin of a fish is "right of" the left pectoral fin, merely is "left of" the correct eye,[ dubious – discuss ] simply much easier and clearer to say "the dorsal fin is medial to the pectoral fins".

Terms derived from lateral include:

  • Contralateral (from Latin contra 'against'): on the side opposite to some other structure.[24] For instance, the right arm and leg are controlled by the left, contralateral, side of the brain.
  • Ipsilateral (from Latin ipse 'same'): on the aforementioned side as some other structure.[25] For example, the left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg.
  • Bilateral (from Latin bis 'twice'): on both sides of the body.[26] For example, bilateral orchiectomy means removal of testes on both sides of the body.
  • Unilateral (from Latin unus 'i'): on one side of the body.[27] For example, a stroke can result in unilateral weakness, meaning weakness on one side of the body.

Varus (from Latin 'knock-kneed') and valgus (from Latin 'bow-legged') are terms used to draw a land in which a part farther away is abnormally placed towards (varus) or away from (valgus) the midline.[28]

Proximal and distal [edit]

Anatomical directional reference

The terms proximal (from Latin proximus 'nearest') and distal (from Latin distare 'to stand away from') are used to describe parts of a feature that are close to or afar from the main mass of the torso, respectively.[29] Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal and the mitt is distal.

"Proximal and distal" are oftentimes used when describing appendages, such as fins, tentacles, and limbs. Although the direction indicated past "proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or away from the indicate of attachment, a given structure can be either proximal or distal in relation to another point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to a wound on the upper arm, but proximal to a wound on the lower arm.[30]

This terminology is also employed in molecular biological science and therefore past extension is likewise used in chemistry, specifically referring to the atomic loci of molecules from the overall moiety of a given chemical compound.[31]

Central and peripheral [edit]

Central and peripheral refer to the distance towards and away from the centre of something.[32] That might be an organ, a region in the body, or an anatomical structure. For example, the Central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems.

Cardinal (from Latin centralis) describes something shut to the centre.[32] For example, the nifty vessels run centrally through the torso; many smaller vessels branch from these.

Peripheral (from Latin peripheria, originally from Ancient Greek) describes something further away from the center of something.[33] For example, the arm is peripheral to the body.

Superficial and deep [edit]

These terms refer to the distance of a structure from the surface.[2]

Deep (from Erstwhile English) describes something further away from the surface of the organism.[34] For case, the external oblique musculus of the abdomen is deep to the skin. "Deep" is one of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English rather than Latin – the anglicised Latin term would have been "profound" (from Latin profundus 'due to depth').[1] [35]

Superficial (from Latin superficies 'surface') describes something near the outer surface of the organism.[1] [36] For example, in peel, the epidermis is superficial to the subcutis.

Dorsal and ventral [edit]

These two terms, used in anatomy and embryology, describe something at the back (dorsal) or forepart/belly (ventral) of an organism.[2]

The dorsal (from Latin dorsum 'dorsum') surface of an organism refers to the dorsum, or upper side, of an organism. If talking virtually the skull, the dorsal side is the acme.[37]

The ventral (from Latin venter 'belly') surface refers to the front end, or lower side, of an organism.[37]

For case, in a fish, the pectoral fins are dorsal to the anal fin, but ventral to the dorsal fin.

Cranial and caudal [edit]

In the human skull, the terms rostral and caudal are adjusted to the curved neuraxis of Hominidae, rostrocaudal pregnant the region on C shape connecting rostral and caudal regions.

Specific terms exist to depict how close or far something is to the head or tail of an fauna. To describe how close to the caput of an animal something is, three distinct terms are used:

  • Rostral (from Latin rostrum 'beak, nose') describes something situated toward the oral or nasal region, or in the case of the brain, toward the tip of the frontal lobe.[38]
  • Cranial (from Greek κρανίον 'skull') or cephalic (from Greek κεφαλή 'head') describes how close something is to the caput of an organism.[39]
  • Caudal (from Latin cauda 'tail') describes how close something is to the trailing finish of an organism.[40]

For example, in horses, the eyes are caudal to the nose and rostral to the back of the head.

These terms are generally preferred in veterinarian medicine and not used as often in human medicine.[41] [42] [43] In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" beingness used more commonly. The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy, apart from embryology, and refers more to the forepart of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is used more in embryology and only occasionally used in human anatomy.[2] This is because the brain is situated at the superior part of the head whereas the nose is situated in the anterior part. Thus, the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to a C shape (see epitome).

Other terms and special cases [edit]

Anatomical landmarks [edit]

The location of anatomical structures can besides be described in relation to different anatomical landmarks. They are used in beefcake, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology.[44]

Structures may be described every bit existence at the level of a specific spinal vertebra, depending on the section of the vertebral column the construction is at.[44] The position is often abbreviated. For example, structures at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra may be abbreviated as "C4", at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra "T4", and at the level of the third lumbar vertebra "L3". Considering the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they are non often used to provide the location.

References may also have origin from superficial anatomy, made to landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath.[44] For case, structures may exist described relative to the anterior superior iliac spine, the medial malleolus or the medial epicondyle.

Anatomical lines are used to depict anatomical location. For example, the mid-clavicular line is used equally part of the cardiac exam in medicine to feel the apex beat of the center.

Oral cavity and teeth [edit]

Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth.[2] Fields such as osteology, palaeontology and dentistry use special terms of location to describe the mouth and teeth. This is because although teeth may be aligned with their master axes within the jaw, some dissimilar relationships require special terminology also; for example, teeth likewise can exist rotated, and in such contexts terms like "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous.[45] [46] For example, the terms "distal" and "proximal" are too redefined to hateful the distance away or shut to the dental curvation, and "medial" and "lateral" are used to refer to the closeness to the midline of the dental arch.[47] Terms used to describe structures include "buccal" (from Latin bucca 'cheek') and "palatal" (from Latin) referring to structures shut to the cheek and hard palate respectively.[47]

Hands and feet [edit]

Anatomical terms used to describe a human hand

Several anatomical terms are particular to the hands and anxiety.[ii]

Additional terms may be used to avoid defoliation when describing the surfaces of the hand and what is the "anterior" or "posterior" surface – . The term "anterior", while anatomically right, tin can exist disruptive when describing the palm of the hand; Similarly is "posterior", used to describe the dorsum of the hand and arm. This confusion tin can arise considering the forearm tin pronate and supinate and flip the location of the hand. For improved clarity, the directional term palmar (from Latin palma 'palm of the hand') is usually used to draw the front of the manus, and dorsal is the dorsum of the hand. For instance, the top of a domestic dog's paw is its dorsal surface; the underside, either the palmar (on the forelimb) or the plantar (on the hindlimb) surface. The palmar fascia is palmar to the tendons of muscles which flex the fingers, and the dorsal venous arch is so named because it is on the dorsal side of the foot.

In humans, volar can also exist used synonymously with palmar to refer to the underside of the palm, but plantar is used exclusively to depict the sole. These terms describe location as palmar and plantar; For case, volar pads are those on the underside of hands or fingers; the plantar surface describes the sole of the heel, foot or toes.

Similarly, in the forearm, for clarity, the sides are named after the bones. Structures closer to the radius are radial, structures closer to the ulna are ulnar, and structures relating to both bones are referred to as radioulnar. Similarly, in the lower leg, structures almost the tibia (shinbone) are tibial and structures well-nigh the fibula are fibular (or peroneal).

Rotational direction [edit]

Anteversion and retroversion are complementary terms describing an anatomical construction that is rotated frontward (towards the forepart of the trunk) or backwards (towards the dorsum of the body), relative to some other position. They are particularly used to describe the curvature of the uterus.[48] [49]

  • Anteversion (from Latin anteversus) describes an anatomical structure existence tilted further forward than normal, whether pathologically or incidentally.[48] For example, a woman'southward uterus typically is anteverted, tilted slightly forward. A misaligned pelvis may be anteverted, that is to say tilted forrad to some relevant degree.
  • Retroversion (from Latin retroversus) describes an anatomical structure tilted back abroad from something.[49] An instance is a retroverted uterus.[49]

Other directional terms [edit]

Several other terms are also used to describe location. These terms are not used to form the stock-still axes. Terms include:

  • Centric (from Latin axis 'beam'): around the central axis of the organism or the extremity. 2 related terms, "abaxial" and "adaxial", refer to locations away from and toward the primal axis of an organism, respectively
  • Luminal (from Latin lumen 'lite, opening'): on the—hollow—inside of an organ's lumen (body cavity or tubular structure);[50] [51] adluminal is towards, abluminal is away from the lumen.[52] Opposite to outermost (the adventitia, serosa, or the cavity'due south wall).[53]
  • Parietal (from Latin paries 'wall'): pertaining to the wall of a torso cavity.[54] For example, the parietal peritoneum is the lining on the inside of the abdominal cavity. Parietal can also refer specifically to the parietal os of the skull or associated structures.
  • Terminal (from Latin terminus 'purlieus or end') at the extremity of a ordinarily projecting structure.[55] For instance, "...an antenna with a terminal sensory hair".
  • Visceral and viscus (from Latin viscera 'internal organs'): associated with organs within the body's cavities.[56] For instance, the stomach is covered with a lining chosen the visceral peritoneum equally opposed to the parietal peritoneum. Viscus can also be used to mean "organ".[56] For instance, the stomach is a viscus inside the abdominal cavity, and visceral hurting refers to pain originating from internal organs.
  • Aboral (opposite to oral) is used to announce a location forth the gastrointestinal canal that is relatively closer to the anus.[57]

Specific animals and other organisms [edit]

Different terms are used because of unlike body plans in animals, whether animals stand up on i or two legs, and whether an fauna is symmetrical or non, as discussed higher up. For example, as humans are approximately bilaterally symmetrical organisms, anatomical descriptions usually apply the same terms every bit those for other vertebrates.[58] However, humans stand upright on two legs, meaning their anterior/posterior and ventral/dorsal directions are the same, and the inferior/superior directions are necessary.[59] Humans do not have a bill, so a term such as "rostral" used to refer to the beak in some animals is instead used to refer to part of the encephalon;[60] humans do also not have a tail so a term such equally "caudal" that refers to the tail end may also be used in humans and animals without tails to refer to the hind part of the body.[61]

In invertebrates, the large diverseness of body shapes presents a difficult trouble when attempting to apply standard directional terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by analogy from vertebrate beefcake, and appropriate novel terms are applied every bit needed. Some such borrowed terms are widely applicable in almost invertebrates; for example proximal, meaning "near" refers to the part of an appendage nearest to where it joins the torso, and distal, significant "continuing away from" is used for the function furthest from the point of zipper. In all cases, the usage of terms is dependent on the torso programme of the organism.

  • Anatomical terms of location in a dog

  • Anatomical terms of location in a kangaroo

  • Anatomical terms of location in a fish.

  • Anatomical terms of location in a horse.

Asymmetrical and spherical organisms [edit]

Asymmetrical and spherical body shapes. (a) An organism with an asymmetrical, amoeboid, trunk program (Amoeba proteus – an amoeba). (b) An organism with a spherical body plan (Actinophrys sol – a heliozoan).

In organisms with a changeable shape, such as amoeboid organisms, most directional terms are meaningless, since the shape of the organism is not constant and no distinct axes are fixed. Similarly, in spherically symmetrical organisms, there is null to distinguish one line through the eye of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could be defined, but whatever such selection of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a chosen triad from whatsoever others. In such organisms, only terms such equally superficial and deep, or sometimes proximal and distal, are usefully descriptive.

4 individuals of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom with a fixed elongated shape.

Elongated organisms [edit]

In organisms that maintain a abiding shape and accept one dimension longer than the other, at least two directional terms can be used. The long or longitudinal axis is divers by points at the contrary ends of the organism. Similarly, a perpendicular transverse axis can be defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. There is typically no ground for the definition of a third axis. Usually such organisms are planktonic (free-pond) protists, and are most e'er viewed on microscope slides, where they appear substantially two-dimensional. In some cases a 3rd axis can be defined, particularly where a not-terminal cytostome or other unique structure is present.[43]

Some elongated protists have distinctive ends of the trunk. In such organisms, the end with a mouth (or equivalent structure, such equally the cytostome in Paramecium or Stentor), or the cease that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion (such as the end with the flagellum in Euglena), is usually designated as the anterior end. The opposite end then becomes the posterior end.[43] Properly, this terminology would apply simply to an organism that is always planktonic (non normally attached to a surface), although the term can also be applied to one that is sessile (normally attached to a surface).[62]

Organisms that are attached to a substrate, such as sponges, brute-like protists also have distinctive ends. The function of the organism fastened to the substrate is commonly referred to as the basal end (from Latin basis 'support/foundation'), whereas the end furthest from the zipper is referred to as the upmost end (from Latin apex 'elevation/tip').

Radially symmetrical organisms [edit]

Radially symmetrical organisms include those in the grouping Radiata – primarily jellyfish, ocean anemones and corals and the rummage jellies.[41] [43] Adult echinoderms, such as starfish, body of water urchins, bounding main cucumbers and others are likewise included, since they are pentaradial, significant they have five discrete rotational symmetry. Echinoderm larvae are not included, since they are bilaterally symmetrical.[41] [43] Radially symmetrical organisms always have i distinctive axis.

Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) accept an incomplete digestive system, pregnant that ane end of the organism has a rima oris, and the opposite terminate has no opening from the gut (coelenteron).[43] For this reason, the cease of the organism with the oral cavity is referred to as the oral end (from Latin ōrālis 'of the mouth'),[63] and the opposite surface is the aboral end (from Latin ab- 'away from').[64]

Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians have no other distinctive axes. "Lateral", "dorsal", and "ventral" have no meaning in such organisms, and all can be replaced by the generic term peripheral (from Ancient Greek περιφέρεια 'circumference'). Medial can be used, but in the case of radiates indicates the central bespeak, rather than a cardinal axis as in vertebrates. Thus, there are multiple possible radial axes and medio-peripheral (half-) axes. Nevertheless, some biradially symmetrical comb jellies do accept distinct "tentacular" and "pharyngeal" axes[65] and are thus anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical animals.

  • Aurelia aurita, another species of jellyfish, showing multiple radial and medio-peripheral axes

  • The sea star Porania pulvillus, aboral and oral surfaces

Spiders [edit]

Special terms are used for spiders. Two specialized terms are useful in describing views of arachnid legs and pedipalps. Prolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the anterior stop of an arachnid's torso. Retrolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the posterior end of an arachnid's body.[66] Nigh spiders accept eight eyes in four pairs. All the eyes are on the carapace of the prosoma, and their sizes, shapes and locations are characteristic of various spider families and other taxa.[67] Ordinarily, the eyes are arranged in two roughly parallel, horizontal and symmetrical rows of eyes.[67] Optics are labelled according to their position as anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median optics (AME) and (PME).[67]

  • Aspects of spider anatomy; This aspect shows the mainly prolateral surface of the anterior femora, plus the typical horizontal eye pattern of the Sparassidae

  • Typical arrangement of eyes in the Lycosidae, with PME being the largest

See also [edit]

  • Geometric terms of location
  • Handedness
  • Laterality
  • Proper correct and proper left
  • Reflection symmetry
  • Sinistral and dextral

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location